Scroll down this page to view the following features:
- Past Papers (Edexcel)
- Past Questions By Topic
- General Examination Hints and Tips
- Ideas for Synopticity
- Advice on A2 Assessment - Andrew Heywood (Edexcel Chief Examiner)
Specimen Assessment Materials 2008
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- Why is sovereignty now widely viewed as an outdated concept? (15)
- What are the implications of bipolarity for global order? (15)
- Explain the main criticisms of the IMF. (15)
- Explain the significance of the way in which membership of the United Nations Security Council is determined. (15)
- Explain the link between regionalism and globalization. (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- ‘The EU has not become a federal superstate.’ Discuss. (45)
- To what extent is globalisation merely another name for US imperialism? (45)
- Is China now a superpower? (45)
(Total 90 marks)
January 2010
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- How does global governance differ from world government? (15)
- Why do realists believe that global politics is characterised by conflict? (15)
- Explain the driving forces behind regional integration and cooperation. (15)
- What is ‘soft’ power, and why has it become more important in recent years? (15)
- Explain the main criticisms that have been made of the World Trade Organization. (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- To what extent has globalisation reshaped international politics? (45)
- ‘The USA is a power in decline.’ Discuss. (45)
- To what extent has the EU established a ‘federal’ Europe? (45)
(Total 90 marks)
June 2010
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- Distinguish between economic globalisation and political globalisation. (15)
- Why has it been difficult to develop an effective EU Foreign and Security Policy? (15)
- Define hegemony, and explain its significance for global order. (15)
- What have been the implications of the enlargement of the EU since 2004? (15)
- Define the concept of supranationalism, and explain why it has been controversial. (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- Are war and international conflict inevitable features of global politics? (45)
- “The UN is now an outdated body”. Discuss. (45)
- To what extent is the global system now multipolar? (45)
(Total 90 marks)
January 2011
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- Why do liberals believe that global politics tends towards cooperation rather than conflict? (15)
- What is the balance of power, and how effective is it in preventing war? (15)
- Explain the relationship between regionalism and globalisation. (15)
- Distinguish, using examples, between intergovernmentalism and supranationalism. (15)
- Is China a superpower? (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- To what extent is globalisation simply ‘Americanisation in disguise’? (45)
- ‘The EU is a unique example of regional integration.’ Discuss. (45)
- To what extent is the UN effective in ensuring peace and security? (45)
(Total 90 marks)
June 2011
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- Define state sovereignty, and explain its implications for international politics. (15)
- Why have there been calls for the reform of the UN Security Council? (15)
- In what ways is the EU an example of supranational governance? (15)
- What are the implications of bipolarity for global order? (15)
- What is cultural globalisation, and why has it been criticised? (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- ‘The EU has developed into a major global actor'. Discuss. (45)
- To what extent is global economic governance effective? (45)
- ‘Military power is now largely obsolete in global politics'. Discuss. (45)
(Total 90 marks)
Edexcel Unit 4D
Specimen Assessment Materials 2008
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- Why is it difficult to prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction? (15)
- How effective are the judicial institutions that attempt to uphold international law? (15)
- Why is the divide between the North and the South still growing? (15)
- Why is sustainable development a contested concept? (15)
- How is the protection of human rights becoming more significant in global politics? (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- “The 2003 Iraq war was justified”. Discuss. (45)
- “Global warming is forcing international cooperation over environmental issues”. Discuss. (45)
- “Corruption is the grease that lubricates the squeaky gate”. Discuss the extent to which corruption hinders or promotes development. (45)
(Total 90 marks)
January 2010
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- What are human rights, and why do they have implications for global politics? (15)
- Why have some modern wars been classified as ‘new’ wars? (15)
- Why do states find it difficult to cooperate over environmental issues? (15)
- Explain the ‘orthodox’ (economic liberal) approach to development. (15)
- How and why has religion become more important in global politics? (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- To what extent is countering terrorism compatible with upholding human rights? (45)
- To what extent is international aid effective? (45)
- ‘Global warming sharply divides political opinion’. Discuss. (45)
(Total 90 marks)
June 2010
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- In what ways did 9/11 redefine the nature of terrorism? (15)
- What is the North-South divide, and why is it sometimes said to be an outdated idea? (15)
- How and why do environmental issues create tension between the developed and the developing worlds? (15)
- Distinguish between different types of international human rights. (15)
- What was the ‘debt crisis’ of the 1980s, and how much progress has been made in resolving it? (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- To what extent does nuclear proliferation threaten peace and security? (45)
- Is humanitarian intervention ever justified? (45)
- ‘The international community has failed to take concerted action over climate change’. Discuss. (45)
(Total 90 marks)
January 2011
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- What is neocolonialism, and how has it been used to explain global inequality? (15)
- Why has humanitarian intervention been criticised? (15)
- What is ‘the tragedy of the commons’, and explain its implications for global environmental policy? (15)
- What are the major reasons behind the proliferation of nuclear weapons? (15)
- Explain why there has been growing interest in strategies to adapt to, rather than reduce, climate change. (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- ‘The IMF and the World Bank have failed the world’s poor.’ Discuss. (45)
- To what extent are human rights effectively protected in the modern world? (45)
- ‘Concerns about an emerging “clash of civilisations” have been greatly exaggerated.’ Discuss. (45)
(Total 90 marks)
June 2011
Answer FOUR questions, three from Section A and one from Section B.
SECTION A
Answer THREE questions from this Section.
- Why are 'asymmetrical wars', such as those in Iraq and Afghanistan, so difficult to win? (15)
- What is humanitarian intervention, and why did it increase during the 1990s? (15)
- How and why have strictly economic conceptions of development been criticised? (15)
- Distinguish between the competing views of reformists and radicals over tackling global environmental issues. (15)
- Why has the idea of universal human rights been criticised? (15)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question from this Section.
- To what extent was the 2009 Copenhagen conference on climate change a success? (45)
- 'Globalisation has increased, not reduced, global poverty'. Discuss. (45)
- To what extent is global terrorism a major threat to order and security? (45)
(Total 90 marks)
Past Questions by Topic
NB: Questions marked with a double asterisk (**) draw upon more than one topic area.
3D: Approaches to Global Politics
Sample Assessment Materials
- Why is sovereignty now widely viewed as an outdated concept? (15)
- Explain the link between regionalism and globalization. (15) **
- To what extent is globalisation merely another name for US imperialism? (45) **
January 2010
- Why do realists believe that global politics is characterised by conflict? (15)
- To what extent has globalisation reshaped international politics? (45) **
June 2010
- Distinguish between economic globalisation and political globalisation. (15)
- Define the concept of supranationalism, and explain why it has been controversial. (15) **
- Are war and international conflict inevitable features of global politics? (45)
January 2011
- Why do liberals believe that global politics tends towards cooperation rather than conflict? (15)
- Explain the relationship between regionalism and globalisation. (15) **
- To what extent is globalisation simply ‘Americanisation in disguise’? (45) **
3D: Global Governance
Sample Assessment Materials
- Explain the main criticisms of the IMF. (15)
- Explain the significance of the way in which membership of the United Nations Security Council is determined. (15)
January 2010
- How does global governance differ from world government? (15)
- Explain the main criticisms that have been made of the World Trade Organization. (15)
June 2010
- Define the concept of supranationalism, and explain why it has been controversial. (15)**
- “The UN is now an outdated body”. Discuss. (45)
January 2011
- Distinguish, using examples, between intergovernmentalism and supranationalism. (15)
- To what extent is the UN effective in ensuring peace and security? (45)
3D: European Union and Regionalism
Sample Assessment Materials
- Explain the link between regionalism and globalization. (15)
- ‘The EU has not become a federal superstate.’ Discuss. (45)
January 2010
- Explain the driving forces behind regional integration and cooperation. (15)
- To what extent has the EU established a ‘federal’ Europe? (45)
June 2010
- Why has it been difficult to develop an effective EU Foreign and Security Policy? (15)
- What have been the implications of the enlargement of the EU since 2004? (15)
- Define the concept of supranationalism, and explain why it has been controversial. (15) **
January 2011
- Explain the relationship between regionalism and globalisation. (15) **
- ‘The EU is a unique example of regional integration.’ Discuss. (45)
3D: World Order
Sample Assessment Materials
- What are the implications of bipolarity for global order? (15)
- To what extent is globalisation merely another name for US imperialism? (45) **
- Is China now a superpower? (45)
January 2010
- What is ‘soft’ power, and why has it become more important in recent years? (15)
- To what extent has globalisation reshaped international politics? (45) **
- ‘The USA is a power in decline.’ Discuss. (45)
June 2010
- Define hegemony, and explain its significance for global order. (15)
- To what extent is the global system now multipolar? (45)
January 2011
- What is the balance of power, and how effective is it in preventing war? (15)
- Is China a superpower? (15)
- To what extent is globalisation simply ‘Americanisation in disguise’? (45) **
4D: Conflict, War and Terrorism
Specimen Assessment Materials
- Why is it difficult to prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction? (15)
- “The 2003 Iraq war was justified”. Discuss. (45)
January 2010
- Why have some modern wars been classified as ‘new’ wars? (15)
- How and why has religion become more important in global politics? (15)
- To what extent is countering terrorism compatible with upholding human rights? (45)**
June 2010
- In what ways did 9/11 redefine the nature of terrorism? (15)
- To what extent does nuclear proliferation threaten peace and security? (45)
January 2011
- What are the major reasons behind the proliferation of nuclear weapons? (15)
- ‘Concerns about an emerging “clash of civilisations” have been greatly exaggerated.’ Discuss. (45)
4D: Environmental Issues
Sample Assessment Materials
- Why is sustainable development a contested concept? (15) **
- “Global warming is forcing international cooperation over environmental issues”. Discuss. (45)
January 2010
- Why do states find it difficult to cooperate over environmental issues? (15)
- ‘Global warming sharply divides political opinion’. Discuss. (45)
June 2010
- How and why do environmental issues create tension between the developed and the developing worlds? (15) **
- ‘The international community has failed to take concerted action over climate change’. Discuss. (45)
January 2011
- What is ‘the tragedy of the commons’, and explain its implications for global environmental policy? (15)
- Explain why there has been growing interest in strategies to adapt to, rather than reduce, climate change. (15)
4D: Human Rights
Sample Assessment Materials
- How effective are the judicial institutions that attempt to uphold international law? (15)
- How is the protection of human rights becoming more significant in global politics? (15)
January 2010
- What are human rights, and why do they have implications for global politics? (15)
- To what extent is countering terrorism compatible with upholding human rights? (45) **
June 2010
- Distinguish between different types of international human rights. (15)
- Is humanitarian intervention ever justified? (45)
January 2011
- Why has humanitarian intervention been criticised? (15)
- To what extent are human rights effectively protected in the modern world? (45)
4D: Poverty and Development
Sample Assessment Materials
- Why is the divide between the North and the South still growing? (15)
- Why is sustainable development a contested concept? (15)**
- “Corruption is the grease that lubricates the squeaky gate”. Discuss the extent to which corruption hinders or promotes development. (45)
January 2010
- Explain the ‘orthodox’ (economic liberal) approach to development. (15)
- To what extent is international aid effective? (45)
June 2010
- What is the North-South divide, and why is it sometimes said to be an outdated idea? (15)
- How and why do environmental issues create tension between the developed and the developing worlds? (15) **
- What was the ‘debt crisis’ of the 1980s, and how much progress has been made in resolving it? (15)
January 2011
- What is neocolonialism, and how has it been used to explain global inequality? (15)
- ‘The IMF and the World Bank have failed the world’s poor.’ Discuss. (45)
General Examination Hints and Tips
From the January 2010 Edexcel Unit 4D Examiners' Report:
Few responses were entirely irrelevant or based on gross misunderstanding; rather, they suffered from a limited development of appropriate knowledge and understanding, aligned, often, to weak conceptual or theoretical awareness. Issues that were often inadequately understood included the nature of human rights, the range of reasons why modern wars have been classified as ‘new’ wars, and the reasons why religion has become more important in modern global politics. The issue of global warming was often discussed using the example of the 2009 Copenhagen Conference on climate change. Although this showed helpful contemporary understanding and sometimes allowed worthwhile insights to be developed, wider concerns and deeper problems sometime went unexplored. On the other hand, the issue of international aid was sometimes discussed with insight, in the best cases based on appropriate empirical evidence.
From the June 2010 Edexcel Unit 3D Examiners' Report:
Three broad factors had a particular influence on the hierarchy of performance:
First, as applies to examinations generally, there was a difference between candidates who had read the question carefully and focused on the specific issue or issues raised, and those who tended, to a greater or lesser extent, to write about the general theme of the question.
(i.e. Stick to the question and make your answer totally relevant!)
Second, performance was variable in relation to the conceptual and theoretical understanding that is
expected of candidates. Better candidates could define and explain terms with confidence and understood the theoretical dimension of questions, while weaker candidates tended to think, and
write, in terms of empirical developments only.
(i.e. Learn the definitions of key terms and understand the theories of global politics!)
Third, the synoptic requirements of the essays were dealt with more or less successfully. The most successful candidates recognised that every essay question is now an invitation for candidates to engage in a debate or discussion, in which there are two or more sides to the argument, sometimes, but not always, rooted in contending theoretical perspectives. Weaker responses, however, tended to be analytical rather than evaluative, providing information and demonstrating knowledge and understanding but without developing an overall argument based on an awareness of rival views.
(i.e. Every response should present the various sides of a topic / debate - with some measure of evaluation!)
From the January 2011 Edexcel Unit 3D Examiners' Report:
Two general issues.... worth bearing in mind. In the first place, it is clear that a number of centres have not fully grasped the significance of the changed understanding of synopticity in the new specification. In particular, they need to place a heavier emphasis on ensuring that candidates recognise that, in view of synopticity, all essay questions are an invitation to debate or discuss a particular political issue. Effective responses in this respect not only highlight the nature of that debate in the introduction to their essays, but also structure their argument around the contending viewpoints or perspectives.
Second, in doing this candidates should not merely be providing an account of rival stances or arguments, showing a sometimes essentially descriptive awareness of the arguments that have been put forward. Instead, they should analyse and evaluate these arguments in order to reach a reasoned but clear conclusion, recognising that all questions require answers. How effectively their answer (or conclusion) stands up in the light of the foregoing debate and discussion very largely determines the candidate’s marks in terms of assessment objectives 1, 2 (including synopticity) and 3. A final general point is that centres should be aware that short questions (questions 1-5) continue to be marked ‘globally’, with only a single mark being given out of a maximum of 15, while the essays (questions 6-8) alone are marked by assessment objectives, including synopticity. This reflects the fact that distinctions between AO1 and AO2 are often difficult to draw in the case of short questions, where the latter tends to refer to ‘analysis’ rather than ‘evaluation’, and therefore overlaps significantly with
‘understanding’ in AO1.
Ideas for Synopticity (Edexcel, Getting Started)
Synoptic assessment is incorporated into Units 3 and 4 through the assessment of synoptic skills.
These skills are based on the essential character of politics as an arena of debate, discussion and contending belief. In short, politics exists because people disagree. Political analysis therefore focuses on the nature, scope and sources of conflict and the mechanisms through which conflict resolution is sought, whether or not these are successful.
The synoptic skills that are assessed by the essay questions in Units 3 and 4 are:
- the ability to identify alternative viewpoints or perspectives on an issue or question
- an awareness of the nature and extent of rivalry between these viewpoints
- an awareness of the significance of the viewpoints for an understanding of the issue or question
This topic lends itself particularly well to synoptic assessment because global politics constitute a range of competing values, theories, doctrines and assessments. Synopticity is tested through the understanding and analysis of such contrasting arguments. Students will be expected to show awareness of the different interpretations of global politics when writing essays for Unit 3.
Examples of synopticity in different subject areas:
The synoptic themes outlined below are neither prescriptive nor exhaustive.
Global Theories
- Liberalism — the key perspectives on liberalism are provided by liberalism itself and its chief
- ideological rivals, notably realism and idealism
- Realism — the key perspectives on realism are provided by realism itself and its chief ideological rivals, notably liberalism and idealism
- Idealism — the key perspectives on idealism are provided by idealism itself and its chief ideological rivals, notably liberalism and realism
Globalisation — knowledge and understanding of differing globalisation theses, such as the extent to which globalisation is occurring at all and the extent to which globalisation is a new phenomenon or simply an extension of colonialism. The impact of globalisation on the nation state is a key issue. Arguably, globalisation has hastened the development of regional institutions, and the nation state has been undermined by a process of glocality, whereby the nation state is weakened while global or regional governance has developed, and citizens become more concerned with global issues such as the environment and local issues.
Power — the extent to which power and influence is still determined by hard power or whether soft power is becoming increasingly relevant.
Balance of power — understanding of the balance of power arguments, including that peace exists when there is power equilibrium; that is, if power is equal then neither side will risk war because the costs of fighting the war will outweigh the likely benefits. Others argue that the balance of power is merely the current status quo, and that if one state increases its military power, or if a state becomes considerably weaker, then power becomes imbalanced and conflict is more likely. So, Iraq in the 1990s did not want neighbouring states to believe that it no longer had WMDs (weapons of mass destruction) because that would leave Iraq vulnerable to an attack. Similarly, the balance of power in Israel - Palestine favoured the Israelis and so open war did not occur. However, should the Palestinians be rearmed or develop WMDs then the balance of power would be disrupted and conflict would become more likely.
Polarity — knowledge of the various debates regarding the relative stability of multipolarity, bipolarity and unipolarity. Does multipolarity promote security or instability? Is bipolarity a stable global structure? To what extent does unipolarity provoke resistance against the global hegemony or does it allow a global hegemony to police the international system?
Governance — the extent to which global institutions promote the idea of global governance, and whether global institutions promote the security and prosperity of all states or promote the development of the rich states but not the poor. Arguments regarding neo-colonialism would be particularly relevant.
The European Union — the debates concerning sovereignty (pooling or surrendering), EU expansion, the Euro, QMV (qualified majority voting), taxation, foreign policy and supranationalism versus intergovernmentalism must be understood.
Unit 4: Topic D, Global Political Issues
This topic lends itself particularly well to synoptic assessment because global politics constitute a range of competing values, theories, doctrines and assessments. Synopticity is tested through the understanding and analysis of such contrasting arguments. Students will be expected to show awareness of the different interpretations of global politics when writing essays for Unit 4, Topic D.
Advice on synopticity in different subject areas:
The synoptic themes outlined below are neither prescriptive nor exhaustive.
Conflict, War and Terrorism
- Conflicts — students must understand and be able to analyse arguments concerning the causes of conflicts and their impact on the global system and organisations such as the United Nations (UN) and international courts
- Clash of Civilisations — awareness of the thesis and of reaction to it, including awareness that the ‘war on terror’ can be used by nation states and by non-state actors to increase their powers and win popular support
- Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) — an understanding of the threat of WMDs and particularly of nuclear proliferation, but also of contrasting arguments that nuclear weapons actually make the world more stable because the horror of nuclear conflict ensures that no such conflict will take place
Environmental Issues — knowledge of the global environment crisis and of the competing views on how to tackle it, including through international agreements such as Kyoto, or by greater individual awareness and responsibility. Awareness is also needed of arguments that the environment is not under threat, that global warming is only temporary and is partially correcting previous global cooling, that global warming simply reflects growing solar activity and is unrelated to CO2 emissions, or that CO2 emissions from volcanoes and the oceans are much more significant than those from combustion engines and so the politics of fear is using the environment to help politicians win support and political power.
Human Rights — the growing significance of human rights in global politics must be understood, as well as the corresponding increase in humanitarian intervention. Students must be aware of debates over the legitimacy of such action, particularly in relation to state sovereignty, and that action could be taken on a false premise. Analysis must include the legitimacy of human rights legislation and international law in general, given that it is mainly written by the West and reflects Western values, as opposed to Eastern values.
Advice on A2 Assessment - Andrew Heywood (Edexcel Chief Examiner)
As in the revised AS level (8GP01), marks in the A2 will be awarded separately by each assessment objective, not holistically as before. This places a greater stress on the need to understand the various assessment objectives and to be aware of their implications for particular questions.
Allocation of marks
Assessment Objective 1 (AO1)
- Knowledge (suggests breadth)
- Understanding (suggests depth)
- defining concepts
- describing institutions
- setting out features/characteristics
- naming something
- surveying information
- describing differences
- supplying examples
- relevance
- accuracy
- whether the knowledge/understanding is appropriately detailed and developed.
Assessment Objective 2 (AO2)
2a Analysis
The ability to identify the component features of something and to show how they relate to one another
Demonstrated, for example, by:
- examining something closely
- providing explanations (setting out purposes or reasons, or highlighting causal relationships)
- demonstrating interconnections
The ability to make judgements about something, either about the about its importance or its value
Demonstrated, for example, by:
- assessing extent (judging how far something happens)
- measuring effectiveness (judging how far something fulfils its purpose)
- weighing up importance (judging the impact of something)
- assessing the coherence of an argument (judging the logic of an argument)
- assessing an argument/viewpoint in the light of available evidence (judging whether an argument 'stands up')
- arguing to a conclusion (judging the respective strengths of competing viewpoints)
Demonstrated, for example, by:
- showing how two or more things can be compared and / or contrasted
- judging the balance between similarities and differences
Synoptic Assessment (AO2)
Awareness of competing viewpoints or perspectives
Demonstrated, for example by:
- identifying alternative viewpoints or perspectives on a question
- awareness of the nature and extent of rivalry between these viewpoints
- awareness of the significance of the viewpoints for an understanding of the issue or question
Assessment Objective 3 (AO3)
3a Ability to construct and communicate coherent arguments
Demonstrated, for example, by:
- organising points in a logical sequence
- having, through the answer, a clear and coherent line of argument
- having appropriate balance in the argument
- (where appropriate) reaching a conclusion, clearly linked to the foregoing argument
Demonstrated by the use of specialist terminology, relevant to the question
Question types
Short questions (Units 3 and 4)
AO1 = 5 marks
AO2 = 7 marks
AO3 = 3 marks
Total = 15 marks
Focus of short questions:
- Questions will have an narrower or more specific focus than essay questions. Questions will not be open-ended
- Questions will require candidates to do more than describe or just present information. The main intellectual skills assessed (AO2) will be analysis, evaluation by importance, and the identification of similarities and differences. Debate and discussion questions will be rare, but candidates may be asked to explain particular political viewpoints or arguments
- Questions will NOT require essay-style responses (introduction-argument-conclusion), although clarity and coherence in presentation will be rewarded via AO3 marks
Essay questions (Units 3 and 4)
AO1 = 12 marks
AO2 = 24 marks (includes 12 marks for synopticity)
AO3 = 9 marks
Total = 45 marks
Focus of questions:
- Questions will have a discursive nature, in that they may permit two or more legitimate answers, allowing synopticity to be assessed. As there will be no 'right' or 'wrong' response, candidates will be rewarded for the knowledge and skills they deploy in supporting their chosen conclusion
- Questions will primarily test the AO2 skill of evaluation. No questions will require only analysis or the identification of parallels, similarities and differences
- Questions will require essay-style responses, which have the following features:
Introductions should:
- define key terms used in the question
- show an understanding of 'the point' of the question (the issue or issues it raises
- (optional) outline the line of argument to be adopted, possibly indicating the conclusion favoured
- Make points in a logically related order
- Consider contrasting viewpoints or positions as appropriate (for/against, advantages/disadvantages, benefits/drawbacks, etc.)
- Support points with appropriate evidence (make a point and prove it)
- Qualify points wherever appropriate (make a point and qualify it – "However, …"; "On the other hand …")
- Argue to a conclusion (do not 'sit on the fence', unless the question invites it)
- Be clear and short
- Start with a one-sentence answer to the question set ('In conclusion, …')
- Briefly summarise the key factors that support this conclusion (new material should generally not be introduced at this stage)
analyse = break something into its component parts and show how they relate to one another
assess = present a reasoned case
compare = 'weigh up' a statement, showing arguments in favour and against
contrast = identify similarities
criticise = identify differences
define = say what a word or phrase means
describe = set out features or characteristics
discuss = examine an issue closely, taking account of differing viewpoints
distinguish = describe differences
evaluate = make judgments based on evidence
examine = investigate closely
explain = show how something works, usually by giving a clear and detailed account of it
